Red capsicum
StarCapsicum annuum
Synonyms: Capsicum odoriferum, Capsicum violaceum, Capsicum annuum subsp. abbreviatum, Capsicum pomiferum, Capsicum frutescens var. acuminatum, Capsicum frutescens var. fasciculatum, Capsicum angulosum, Capsicum crispum, Capsicum annuum f. chlorocarpum, Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum tournefortii, Capsicum pyramidale, Capsicum petenense, Capsicum frutescens var. queenslandicum, Capsicum annuum var. fingerhuthii, Capsicum annuum var. cerasiforme, Capsicum annuum var. parvoacuminatum, Capsicum indicum var. conoideum, Capsicum annuum var. milleri, Capsicum annuum var. cordiforme, Capsicum conoideum var. oblongoconicum, Capsicum annuum var. bicolor, Capsicum chlorocladum, Capsicum milleri, Capsicum hispidum, Capsicum annuum f. leucocarpum, Capsicum ustulatum, Capsicum annuum var. acuminatum, Capsicum annuum var. minimum, Capsicum annuum subsp. acuminatum, Capsicum sphaerium, Capsicum hamiltonii, Capsicum hispidum var. glabriusculum, Capsicum abyssinicum, Capsicum cordiforme, Capsicum grossum, Capsicum annuum var. grossum, Capsicum narunca, Capsicum annuum var. pyramidale, Capsicum globiferum, Capsicum annuum var. fasciculatum, Capsicum longum, Capsicum frutescens var. grossum, Capsicum annuum var. luteum, Capsicum annuum f. erectum, Capsicum tomatiforme, Capsicum annuum f. pendulum, Capsicum annuum var. tetragonum, Capsicum grossum var. cerasiforme, Capsicum annuum var. purpureum, Capsicum fasciculatum, Capsicum annuum var. aviculare, Capsicum micranthum, Capsicum oliviforme, Capsicum frutescens var. cerasiforme, Capsicum frutescens var. glabriusculum, Capsicum annuum var. conicum, Capsicum annuum var. leptoceras, Capsicum frutescens var. abbreviatum, Capsicum annuum f. nigrum, Capsicum sonitpurense, Capsicum silvestre, Capsicum annuum var. globiferum, Capsicum dulce, Capsicum annuum f. luteum, Capsicum nigrum, Capsicum curvipes, Capsicum globosum, Capsicum ceratocarpum, Capsicum annuum var. longum, Capsicum axi, Capsicum quitense, Capsicum annuum var. weinmannii, Piper indicum, Capsicum annuum var. ceratocarpum, Capsicum annuum var. conoides, Capsicum bauhini, Capsicum conoideum var. chordale, Capsicum annuum var. abbreviatum, Capsicum ovatum, Capsicum frutescens var. conoides, Capsicum annuum subsp. microcarpon, Capsicum caerulescens, Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum, Capsicum indicum var. aviculare, Capsicum odoratum, Capsicum cydoniforme, Capsicum luteum, Capsicum frutescens var. longum, Capsicum annuum var. pendulum, Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum conicum, Capsicum conoideum, Capsicum cereolum, Capsicum minimum, Capsicum tetragonum, Capsicum torulosum, Capsicum annuum var. subconicum, Capsicum annuum var. nigrum, Capsicum annuum var. angulosum, Capsicum comarim, Capsicum annuum var. oblongoconicum, Capsicum annuum f. violaceum, Capsicum bicolor, Capsicum conoideum var. sulcatum, Capsicum velutinum, Capsicum purpureum, Capsicum cerasiforme
Western Herbalism Properties
Traditional Uses
Capsicum was domesticated in Mesoamerica and used medicinally throughout the Americas. Among Native North American peoples the Cherokee used it as a stimulant, a warming poultice, for gastrointestinal complaints, and against colds, while the Navajo applied it in pediatric and gynecological care (Moerman, 1998). In Eclectic Western practice cayenne (Capsicum) was a leading diffusive stimulant and rubefacient counterirritant employed for sluggish circulation, atonic dyspepsia, and externally for pain, an action attributable to capsaicin (King's American Dispensatory; Felter & Lloyd, 1898). It also features in Mesoamerican and Ayurvedic folk medicine as a warming carminative.
Gallery
Botanical Description
Capsicum annuum is a herbaceous to somewhat woody plant of the nightshade family, grown as an annual in temperate regions but persisting as a short-lived perennial in the tropics, typically 0.5 to 1.5 m tall. The stems are branching and angular, bearing alternate, smooth, ovate to lance-shaped leaves on slender stalks. The flowers are usually solitary in the leaf forks, with a white (sometimes purplish) star-shaped corolla and yellowish anthers. The fruit is a many-seeded berry varying enormously among cultivars in size, shape, colour, and pungency, from large sweet bell peppers to small fiery cayenne and chili types; pungency comes from capsaicinoids concentrated in the placental tissue. Native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, where it was domesticated in antiquity, it is now cultivated worldwide both as a vegetable and spice.
Active Constituents
Capsaicin
Capsaicinoid (vanillylamide alkaloid)Concentration: The dominant pungent principle; capsaicinoids typically total 0.1-1% of dry fruit in pungent cultivars (near-zero in sweet types), of which capsaicin is roughly 60-70%
The principal pungent compound; a selective agonist of the TRPV1 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 1) receptor on sensory neurons. Repeated exposure defunctionalises nociceptors and depletes substance P, the basis of its analgesic use in neuropathic and musculoskeletal pain. Also studied for metabolic, cardioprotective and gastrointestinal effects.
Dihydrocapsaicin
CapsaicinoidConcentration: Second most abundant capsaicinoid, commonly ~20-30% of total capsaicinoids
Shares capsaicin's TRPV1 agonism and pungency; contributes to the overall analgesic, thermogenic and irritant properties of the fruit.
Nordihydrocapsaicin
CapsaicinoidConcentration: Minor capsaicinoid, typically a few percent of total capsaicinoids
A less pungent capsaicinoid analogue contributing to the fruit's characteristic slow-building heat sensation.
Capsanthin
Xanthophyll carotenoidConcentration: Major red pigment of ripe fruit, the principal component of paprika oleoresin colour
The main red carotenoid responsible for the colour of ripe fruit and paprika. An antioxidant with reported free-radical-scavenging activity.
Capsorubin
Xanthophyll carotenoidConcentration: Secondary red carotenoid of ripe fruit
Co-pigment with capsanthin giving deep red colour; contributes antioxidant capacity.
beta-Carotene
Carotenoid (provitamin A)Concentration: Present in ripe fruit alongside other carotenoids
Provitamin A antioxidant carotenoid contributing to nutritional value and colour.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Vitamin / organic acidConcentration: High; fresh fruit is among the richer plant sources of vitamin C
Water-soluble antioxidant and essential nutrient; historically the compound first isolated by Szent-Gyorgyi from paprika.
Flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin glycosides)
Flavonoid polyphenolsConcentration: Minor constituents of fruit and leaf
Polyphenolic antioxidants contributing anti-inflammatory and free-radical-scavenging activity to whole-fruit preparations.
⚠ Drug Interactions
Warfarin and other anticoagulant / antiplatelet agents
Animal and limited human data suggest capsicum may increase fibrinolytic activity, lower plasma fibrinogen, raise antithrombin III and inhibit platelet aggregation, which could theoretically potentiate anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs. Clinical bleeding events have not been reported.
Clinical note: Culinary use is not a concern; monitor for additive effects only with concentrated oral supplements in anticoagulated patients.
Theophylline
Capsaicin can increase gastrointestinal permeability and has been shown to enhance the absorption and bioavailability of co-administered theophylline, potentially raising plasma levels of this narrow-therapeutic-index drug.
Clinical note: Consider the possibility of increased theophylline effect or toxicity with regular high capsaicin intake.
ACE inhibitors (e.g. enalapril, lisinopril)
ACE inhibitors sensitise the airway cough reflex via accumulation of substance P and bradykinin; capsaicin, a substance-P-releasing TRPV1 agonist, may enhance this reflex and aggravate ACE-inhibitor-associated cough, particularly with topical/inhaled exposure.
Clinical note: Relevant mainly to concentrated topical capsaicin; consider capsaicin if ACE-inhibitor cough worsens.
Preparation Methods
Topical capsaicin cream / ointment
Parts: fruit
Standardised low-concentration capsaicin creams (typically 0.025-0.075%) are applied thinly to intact skin several times daily for musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain. Wash hands after use and avoid contact with eyes, broken skin and mucous membranes, as capsaicin is a potent irritant. High-concentration (8%) patches are prescription products for supervised clinical use only.
Tincture / infused oil
Parts: fruit
A tincture of dried fruit or a warm-infused oil is used externally as a rubefacient/counterirritant liniment for cold extremities and aching joints. Use sparingly and test on a small skin area first; discontinue if blistering occurs.
Culinary and low-dose internal use
Parts: fruit
Ground fruit (paprika, cayenne) is used as a warming digestive stimulant and circulatory carminative in food and small doses. Large ingested amounts can cause gastrointestinal burning; avoid in active peptic ulceration and gastro-oesophageal reflux.
Clinical Studies
NGX-4010, a high-concentration capsaicin patch, for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised, double-blind study
A single 60-minute application of an 8% capsaicin (the pungent principle of Capsicum annuum) dermal patch produced significantly greater reduction in postherpetic neuralgia pain over 12 weeks than a low-concentration control patch, demonstrating the analgesic efficacy of high-dose capsaicin in neuropathic pain.
Historical Texts
Diego Alvarez Chanca, physician on Columbus's second voyage, letter to Seville (describing 'aji')
1494Nicolas Monardes, Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales
1565-1574Leonhart Fuchs, De historia stirpium
1543References
- Batiha GE, Alqahtani A, Ojo OA, et al.. Biological Activities of Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum) and Its Pungent Principle Capsaicin: A Review . Frontiers in Pharmacology / Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (review) (2020) [DOI]
- Fattori V, Hohmann MSN, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA. Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses . Molecules (2016) [DOI]
- Backonja M, Wallace MS, Blonsky ER, et al.. NGX-4010, a high-concentration capsaicin patch, for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised, double-blind study . The Lancet Neurology (2008) [DOI]
This information is for educational purposes only and is not intended to replace professional medical advice. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before using any herbal remedy, especially if you are pregnant, nursing, or taking medications.
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